Equilibrium
State of being able to explain new events with existing schemes.
Encoding
Changing the format of information being stored in memory in order to remember it more easily.
Disequilibrium
Inability to explain new events with existing schemes; tends to be accompanied by a sense of discomfort.
Scheme
In Piaget’s theory, organized group of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment.
operant conditioning
a response increases in frequency as a result of being followed by reinforcement.
Assimilation
Responding to and possibly interpreting a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme.
fixed ratio (FR) schedule
rienforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a fixed number of behaviors
Concrete operations stage
Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, in which adult-like logic appears but is limited to concrete reality.
self-regulated learning
rewarding or punishing one’s own behavior
Retrieval
Process of “finding” information previously stored in memory.
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that naturally evokes a paricular response
punishment
unpleasent consequences used to weaken behavior
Individual constructivism
people, as individuals, construct meaning from the events around them.
Cognitive modeling
Demonstrating how to think about as well as how to do a task.
shaping
the teaching of a new skill or behavior by means of reinforcement for small steps toward the desired goal
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Response that is elicited by a particular (unconditioned) stimulus without prior learning.
Conditioned stimuli
Stimulus that begins to elicit a particular response through classical conditioning. e.g., a buzzer regularly paired with the puff of air
Long-term memory
Component of memory that holds knowledge and skills for a relatively long time.
removal punishment
withdrawl of a pleasant consequence that is reinforcing a behavior, designed to decrease the chance that the behavior will recur
unconditioned response
a behavior that is prompted automatically by a stimulus
Attention
Focusing of mental processes on particular stimuli.
maintenance
continuation (of behavior)
Semantic knowledge
Knowledge of the meanings of words and word combinations.
discrimination
perception of and response to differenced in stimuli
Undergeneralization
Overly narrow view of the objects or events that a concept includes.
negative reinforcer
release from an unpleasant situation, given to stregthen behavior
Conservation
Realization that if nothing is added or taken away, amount stays the same regardless of alterations in shape or arrangement.
antecedent stimuli
events that precede behaviors
Zone of proximal development
Range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently.
Community of learners
Class in which teacher and students actively and collaboratively work to create a body of knowledge and help one another learn.
Vicarious reinforcement
Phenomenon in which a response increases in frequency when another person is observed being reinforced for that response.
Reinforcement
Act of following a response with a reinforcer.
Guided participation
A child’s performance, with guidance and support, of an activity in the adult world.
Scaffolding
Support mechanism that helps a learner successfully perform a task within his or her zone of proximal development.
extinction
the weakening and eventural elimination of a learned behavior as reinforcement is withdrawn
Schema
General understanding of what an object or event is typically like.
Metacognition
Knowledge and beliefs about one’s own cognitive processes, as well as conscious attempts to engage in behaviors and thought processes that increase learning and memory.
conditioned stimulus
a previously neutral stimulus that evokes a particular response after having been paired with an unconditioned response
Bloom’s taxonomy
Taxonomy of six cognitive processes, varying in complexity, that lessons might be designed to foster.
Rehearsal
Cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and remembering it.
Elaboration
Cognitive process in which learners embellish on new information based on what they already know.
variable ratio (VR) schedule
reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a constant amount of time
Working memory
Component of memory that holds and actively thinks about and processes a limited amount of information.
Conceptual change
Revision of one’s understanding of a topic in response to new information.
intrinsic reinforcers
behavior that a person enjoys engaging in for their own sake, without any other reward
time out
procedure of removing a student from a situation in which misbehavior was being reinforced
Overgeneralization
Overly broad view of the objects or events that a concept includes.
Stage theory
Theory that depicts development as a series of relatively discrete periods (stages).
cues
signals as to what behavior(s) will be reinforced or punished
learning
a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
aversive stimulus
an unpleasant consequence that a person tries to avoid or escape
consequences
pleasant or unpleasant conditions that follow behaviors and affect the frequency of future behaviors
Modeling
Demonstrating a behavior for another; also, observing and imitating another’s behavior.
presentation punsishment
an adverse stimulus following a behavior, used to decrease the chances that the behavior will occur again
beha
vioral learning theoriesexplanations of learning that emphasize observable changes in behavior.
Authentic activity
Approach to instruction similar to one students might encounter in the outside world.
Information processing theory
Theoretical perspective that focuses on how learners mentally think about (process) new information and events and how such processes change with development.
Vicarious punishment
Phenomenon in which a response decreases in frequency when another person is observed being punished for that response.
Meaningful learning
Cognitive process in which learners relate new information to things they already know.
cognitive learning theories
explanations of learning that focus on mental processes.
Prior knowledge activation
Process of reminding learners of things they have already learned relative to a new topic.
positive reinforcer
pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior
vicarious learning
learning based on observation of the consequences of other’s behavior
Visual imagery
Process of forming mental pictures of objects or ideas.
extinction burst
the increase in levels of a behavior in the early stages of extinction
social learning theory
people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, in which schemes are based largely on behaviors and perceptions.
Mnemonic
Memory aid or trick designed to help students learn and remember a specific piece of information.
Conditioned response (CR)
Response that begins to be elicited by a particular (conditioned) stimulus through classical conditioning. e.g., blinking
Concept map
Diagram of concepts and their interrelationships; used to enhance learning and memory of a topic.
Behaviorism
learning and behavior are described and explained in terms of stimulus-response relationships, and motivation is often the result of deficit-based drives.
Formal operations stage
Piaget’s fourth and final stage of cognitive development, logical reasoning processes are applied to abstract ideas as well as to concrete objects, and more sophisticated scientific and mathematical reasoning processes emerge.
Situated learning and cognition
Knowledge, behaviors, and thinking skills acquired and used primarily within certain contexts, with limited if any use in other contexts.
extrinsic reinforcers
praise or rewards given to motivate people to engage in behavior that they might not engage in without them
stimuli
environment conditions that activate the senses
Transfer
Phenomenon in which something a person has learned at one time affects how the person learns or performs in a later situation.
reinforcer
a pleasurable consequence that maintains or increases a behavior
variable interval schedule
reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable amount of time
Procedural knowledge
Knowledge concerning how to do something (e.g., a skill).
Constructivism
learners construct (rather than absorb) a body of knowledge from their experience
Sensitive period
Genetically determined age range during which a certain aspect of a child’s development is especially susceptible to environmental conditions.
Preoperational stage
Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, in which children can think about objects beyond their immediate view but do not yet reason in logical, adult-like ways.
secondary reinforcer
a consequence that people learn to value through its association with a primary reinforcer
Spiral curriculum
Bruner’s design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time.
Comprehension monitoring
Process of checking oneself to be sure one understands and remembers newly acquired information.
premack principle
rule stating that enjoyable activities can be used to rienforce participaiton in less enjoyable activites
Reciprocal causation
Mutual cause-and-effect relationships among environment, behavior, and personal variables as these three factors influence learning and development.
moldeling
imitation of others’ behaviors
Maturation
Unfolding of genetically controlled changes as a child develops.
neutral stimuli
stumuli that have no effect on a particular response
Rote learning
Learning information in a relatively uninterpreted form, without making sense of it or attaching much meaning to it.
Social learning theory
Theoretical perspective in which learning by observing others is the focus of study. Initially, this perspective focused largely on stimulus-response relationships. More recently, it has come to incorporate cognitive processes as well, hence its alternative name social cognitive theory.
observational learning
learning by observation and imitation
Accommodation
Responding to a new object or event by either modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one.
Social constructivism
Theoretical perspective that focuses on people’s collective efforts to impose meaning on the world.
Developmental milestone
Appearance of a new, developmentally more advanced behavior.
Classical conditioning
the process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to evoke a conditioned response
Declarative knowledge
Knowledge related to “what is”—that is, to the nature of how things are, were, or will be.
primary reinforcer
food, water, or other consequence that satisfy a primary need
cognitive behavior modification
procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive principles for changing one’s own behavior by means of self-talk and self-instruction
generalization
carry over of behaviors, skills, or concepts from on setting or task to another
Sensory register
Component of memory that holds incoming information in an unanalyzed form for a very brief time (perhaps one to two seconds).
0 Comments